Land use issues in Bangladesh

Bangladesh faces a various land use problem due to environmental challenges and human activities. Land use change is influenced by urbanization, agricultural activities, environmental degradation and social dynamics. There are key issues in land use including-

1. Rapid urbanization
2. Unplanned Development
3. Agricultural land use pressure
4. Environmental degradation
5. Social Conflict
6. Legal Conflict
7. Ownership Inequality
8. Climate Change

1. Rapid Urbanization:

Rapid Urbanization, characterized by the quick relocation from rural to urban populations and the extension of urban infrastructure, represents multifaceted challenges relevant to land use. Rapid urbanization is converting agricultural lands, forests and wetlands into industrial, residential or commercial areas which is causing environmental stress. For example, Bangladesh has been faced with rapid urban problems, it is urban problem growth that has resulted in the loss of wetlands and rivers, amplifying urban flooding and causing various environmental issues (Akter, n.d.). Dhaka city is the most unplanned city for urban development growth has resulted in the loss of wetlands and rivers and various environmental issues. The studies have shown that Dhaka city has decreased the landfilling and encroachment between water bodies and low land areas, 1960 and 2008, 32.57% and 52.58% respectively (Ahmed, n.d.). This reduction in natural drainage systems has made Dhaka city more vulnerable to waterlogging and urban flooding (Ahmed, n.d.). The drainage capacity in cities has been reduced which is increasing flood vulnerability during monsoon. In Dhaka, Bangladesh, unplanned and extensive housing development has increased in ecologically sensitive areas and places including flood zones and ponds, environmental vulnerabilities such as increased flooding and water quality degradation. The study shows that developers have converted approximately flood areas into housing, violating the Dhaka Metropolitan Development Plan (DMDP) policies (Alam, 2014).

2. Unplanned development:

Unplanned development in Bangladesh has manufactured most challenges in land use management (LUM), drive to extensive environmental, economic, and social issues. The rapid population growth, urbanization, and industrialization in the country have outpaced the government’s ability to implement effective land-use policies, resulting in haphazard construction, deforestation, wetland encroachment, and loss of agricultural land. With a growing population of over 170 million in a geographically small country, the demand for land is ever-increasing, yet the lack of coordinated planning has exacerbated congestion, environmental degradation, and infrastructural inefficiencies (“Analyzing Urban Sprawl and Sustainable Development in Dhaka, Bangladesh,” 2020).

One of the most pressing land use issues is the uncontrolled urban expansion in major cities like Dhaka, Chattogram, Khulna, and Sylhet. These cities are experiencing rapid urban sprawl without proper zoning laws, leading to overcrowded slums, inadequate infrastructure, and severe traffic congestion (Haydar et al., 2024). The informal housing sector has expanded due to the high cost of planned residential areas, forcing low-income groups to settle in unauthorized settlements that lack basic amenities such as water supply, sanitation, and waste management (Rashid, 2009). Furthermore, the limited availability of land in urban areas has driven excessive land speculation, inflating property prices and making housing unaffordable for many citizens.

Another significant consequence of unplanned development is the encroachment on agricultural land. Bangladesh, being an agrarian country, relies heavily on its fertile land for food production, yet rapid industrialization and unregulated urban expansion are rapidly converting farmlands into commercial and residential zones (Rai et al., 2017). The construction of factories, roads, and housing projects often takes precedence over agricultural preservation, threatening food security in the long run. Many farmers are forced to sell their land at low prices due to economic pressures, and the reduction of arable land is leading to declining crop yields and increasing reliance on food imports (D. Kumar & Sanyal, 2024a). Additionally, land degradation due to excessive use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides is worsening the situation, making it difficult to sustain agricultural productivity in the future.

Wetland encroachment is another critical issue resulting from unplanned development. Wetlands play a vital role in maintaining ecological balance, preventing floods, and supporting biodiversity (Abdullah et al., 2024). However, the rapid expansion of urban areas, along with illegal landfilling and construction, has led to the destruction of numerous wetlands, particularly in and around Dhaka (Ishtiaque et al., 2014). The Buriganga, Turag, and Balu rivers, along with various smaller water bodies, have been significantly affected by encroachment, leading to waterlogging, reduced groundwater recharge, and increased flooding risks. The lack of enforcement of environmental laws and corruption in land administration have allowed real estate developers to fill up wetlands illegally, exacerbating urban flooding during the monsoon season (N. S. Khan et al., 2024).

The increasing frequency of natural disasters in Bangladesh is further aggravated by unplanned land use. Deforestation in the hilly regions of Chattogram and Sylhet has resulted in severe landslides, particularly during the monsoon (Siddiqui, 2018). As trees are cleared for settlements, agriculture, and commercial projects, soil erosion intensifies, leading to loss of lives and property (Sadia et al., 2023). Similarly, in coastal areas, unregulated shrimp farming and salt production have disrupted mangrove forests, particularly in the Sundarbans, which serve as a natural barrier against cyclones and tidal surges (Afroz & Alam, 2013). The destruction of these natural defenses has made coastal communities more vulnerable to the effects of climate change, including sea-level rise and extreme weather events.

The absence of a comprehensive and well-enforced land management policy has led to the proliferation of illegal land grabbing and disputes. Political influence and corruption have enabled powerful individuals and organizations to acquire land unlawfully, often displacing marginalized communities without proper compensation or rehabilitation  . Indigenous groups in the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) frequently face land dispossession due to unregulated commercial projects, deforestation, and military installations. The lack of formal land ownership documentation in many rural areas further exacerbates conflicts, leaving thousands of people vulnerable to forced eviction (MohammadMasum, n.d.).

Infrastructure development projects, while necessary for economic growth, are often undertaken without proper environmental impact assessments, leading to disastrous consequences (M. R. Islam & Wa Mungai, 2016). Large-scale projects such as roads, bridges, industrial zones, and power plants frequently disrupt ecosystems and displace communities. For example, the construction of the Rampal coal-fired power plant near the Sundarbans has raised concerns about its potential impact on the world’s largest mangrove forest, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Similarly, the rapid expansion of special economic zones (SEZs) and industrial parks, though aimed at boosting economic development, often lack adequate planning for waste disposal and pollution control, leading to severe environmental hazards.

The inadequacy of transportation and drainage systems in urban areas further reflects the consequences of poor land use planning. Unplanned road networks, unregulated construction, and inefficient traffic management have led to severe congestion, with Dhaka being ranked among the most traffic-congested cities in the world (Y. Ali et al., 2023). The lack of designated spaces for pedestrian walkways, bicycle lanes, and public transport facilities has worsened mobility issues. Additionally, the absence of a well-structured drainage system results in frequent waterlogging during the rainy season, disrupting daily life and increasing the spread of waterborne diseases (R. Alam et al., 2023).

Efforts to address these land use challenges require immediate intervention through the implementation of comprehensive urban planning, strict enforcement of zoning laws, and sustainable development policies. The government must strengthen regulatory bodies to ensure proper land use and take proactive measures to curb illegal encroachments. Developing smart cities with planned infrastructure, promoting vertical expansion instead of horizontal sprawl, and implementing green building practices can help mitigate the negative effects of unplanned urbanization. Additionally, policies should focus on protecting agricultural lands, restoring wetlands, and conserving forests to maintain ecological balance (Roy, 2009).

Public awareness and community involvement are crucial in addressing land use issues. Encouraging citizen participation in decision-making processes, promoting sustainable agricultural practices, and enhancing land ownership documentation can empower communities to resist land grabs and advocate for responsible development (A. Khan, 2022). Integrating modern technology such as Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and satellite imaging can also aid in better monitoring and management of land resources (S. Kumar & Khan, n.d.).

Ultimately, unplanned development in Bangladesh poses a serious threat to sustainable growth, environmental stability, and social well-being. Without immediate action, the country will continue to face escalating challenges, including food insecurity, increased disaster vulnerability, and deteriorating living conditions. A well-coordinated effort by the government, private sector, and civil society is essential to ensure a balanced approach to land use, fostering economic progress while preserving natural resources for future generations (Parven et al., 2022).

3. Agricultural land use pressure

Agricultural land use in Bangladesh faces immense pressure due to a confluence of various socio-economic, environmental, and policy-related factors. As a country that heavily depends on agriculture, the challenges associated with agricultural land use are not just an academic concern, but a pressing issue for policymakers, farmers, and the broader population. The growing demand for agricultural products, coupled with the need for urban development, puts agricultural lands under significant strain. This paper delves into the land use issues faced by Bangladesh, focusing on urbanization, land fragmentation, soil degradation, climate change, and inefficient land administration, with references from academic sources to provide a comprehensive analysis of the situation.

Bangladesh has seen a rapid increase in urbanization over the last few decades, which has led to the conversion of large swathes of agricultural land into urban and industrial spaces. The rise in urban population and infrastructure development has resulted in a steady loss of agricultural land. According to the Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics (BBS), the country’s urban population grew from 23% in 1991 to over 38% in 2021. This rapid urbanization has resulted in the conversion of arable lands to residential, commercial, and industrial properties. For instance, Dhaka, the capital city, has expanded considerably, consuming agricultural land in its periphery. As urban centers spread, they encroach upon prime agricultural areas, such as those in the Barind and Madhupur regions. The transformation of agricultural lands into urban spaces not only reduces the total area available for cultivation but also impacts food security. With the loss of fertile land, the ability to produce sufficient food becomes increasingly challenging, exacerbating the nation’s dependency on food imports to meet domestic demand (D. Kumar & Sanyal, 2024b).

The fragmentation of agricultural land is another significant issue that hampers efficient farming practices. The majority of farmers in Bangladesh operate on small landholdings, with an average size of less than one acre. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), around 80% of the farms in Bangladesh are less than 2.5 acres in size. This fragmentation makes it difficult to achieve economies of scale, and smallholder farmers often struggle to access modern farming techniques, machinery, and technology. As a result, the agricultural output per unit of land is not optimized, leading to lower productivity. Furthermore, the growing fragmentation of land holdings is linked to inheritance practices, where agricultural land is divided among multiple heirs, further decreasing the size of individual landholdings. This situation leads to inefficiencies in the farming system, with many farmers unable to generate enough income to sustain their livelihoods. Despite efforts by the government to promote consolidation of landholdings, such initiatives have had limited success due to complex social, cultural, and economic factors (Rahman, 2017).

Soil degradation represents another critical concern for agricultural land use in Bangladesh. The excessive use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides has led to a decline in soil fertility and the long-term sustainability of agricultural land. In the quest to maximize yields, farmers have increasingly relied on synthetic inputs, such as fertilizers and pesticides, to boost production. While these inputs have had short-term benefits, they have also contributed to the depletion of soil nutrients and contamination of water bodies. Studies indicate that the average soil organic matter content in Bangladesh’s soil is well below the recommended levels, often less than 1.5%, compared to the ideal 2.5%. Soil erosion, salinization, and waterlogging are other forms of soil degradation that have affected large tracts of land in coastal areas, reducing the land’s suitability for cultivation. The impact of soil degradation is particularly severe in the southern coastal regions, where salinity intrusion has significantly reduced agricultural productivity (Md. M. Ali et al., 1997). These environmental stressors are further compounded by inefficient irrigation practices, which exacerbate the depletion of groundwater resources.

Climate change is a looming threat that amplifies all the existing challenges related to agricultural land use in Bangladesh. Being one of the most vulnerable countries to climate change, Bangladesh faces frequent and intense natural disasters, including floods, droughts, cyclones, and rising sea levels. These events have a direct impact on agricultural productivity. For example, in recent years, floods have submerged vast areas of farmland, destroying crops and eroding soil, while prolonged droughts in the northwestern regions of the country have reduced water availability for irrigation. Similarly, rising sea levels threaten to inundate large swathes of coastal agricultural land, especially in the Khulna, Barisal, and Chittagong regions. The increased frequency and intensity of these climate events have made it more difficult for farmers to predict seasonal patterns, resulting in crop failures, food insecurity, and economic losses (Ghosh et al., 2023). Additionally, the lack of adaptive capacity among farmers, especially in rural areas, exacerbates the impacts of climate change, as many are unable to afford the necessary technologies to adapt to these changes.

The land administration system in Bangladesh has long been criticized for its inefficiency and corruption. Despite being one of the most densely populated countries in the world, Bangladesh’s land administration system is cumbersome and outdated. Land disputes are common, especially in rural areas, and the slow pace of land record updates has made it difficult for farmers to gain legal title to their land. This lack of clear land ownership often leads to conflicts over land use and ownership, which can prevent farmers from accessing credit and other services necessary for agricultural development. Furthermore, the land management practices of government agencies have been accused of being inconsistent, leading to a misallocation of land resources. The poor implementation of land reforms has meant that land redistribution efforts to ensure more equitable access to land have often been inadequate. This has resulted in a concentration of land ownership in the hands of a few individuals or entities, further deepening social inequality (Chowdory, 2024).

4. Environmental degradation

Bangladesh, a densely populated country with limited land resources, faces significant challenges regarding land use, particularly concerning environmental degradation and agricultural land pressure. With a population exceeding 170 million in a relatively small geographical area, the demand for land for housing, infrastructure, industry, and agriculture is immense. This intense competition for land resources has led to widespread environmental concerns, including deforestation, land degradation, and the loss of arable land. The rapid urbanization process further exacerbates these issues, as agricultural lands are frequently converted into residential and commercial spaces, diminishing the country’s food production capacity and threatening long-term sustainability (D. Kumar & Sanyal, 2024b).

One of the primary factors contributing to land use issues in Bangladesh is the continuous reduction of cultivable land due to industrialization and urban expansion. The urban sprawl in cities such as Dhaka and Chattogram has encroached upon fertile agricultural lands, leading to decreased agricultural productivity. Farmers are often compelled to sell their land due to economic pressure, with real estate developers converting these lands into housing projects and commercial centers. This phenomenon not only reduces the availability of land for food production but also disrupts the ecological balance, as vegetation is cleared, and natural water bodies are filled in for construction purposes (Statistical Yearbook Bangladesh 2021 = Bāṃlādeśa Parisaṅkhyāna Barṣagrantha 2021, 2022). Moreover, climate change has played a significant role in aggravating land degradation in Bangladesh. Rising sea levels, riverbank erosion, and increased salinity intrusion in coastal areas have led to the loss of thousands of hectares of arable land. The southern coastal belt, including districts such as Satkhira, Khulna, and Bagerhat, has been severely affected by salinity intrusion, making vast tracts of land unsuitable for traditional farming. Consequently, farmers are forced to shift to alternative livelihoods, such as shrimp farming, which further alters the natural landscape and disrupts local ecosystems. The reliance on shrimp farming, while economically viable in the short term, has led to soil degradation and water pollution, exacerbating land use conflicts and environmental concerns (Md. A. Islam, 2021).

The extensive use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides in agriculture has also contributed to soil degradation and decreased land fertility. To meet the growing food demand, Bangladeshi farmers often resort to excessive use of synthetic inputs, which leads to soil acidification, loss of essential nutrients, and contamination of groundwater. Over time, this deteriorates soil health, making it less productive and forcing farmers to expand agricultural activities into new areas, often at the cost of forests and wetlands. The expansion of agricultural land at the expense of natural ecosystems leads to biodiversity loss and increases vulnerability to natural disasters such as floods and cyclones, which are already frequent in Bangladesh (M. E. Hossain et al., 2022).

Another major land use challenge is the continuous encroachment on wetlands and rivers, which play a crucial role in maintaining ecological balance. Wetlands such as the haor basins in northeastern Bangladesh are crucial for fisheries, agriculture, and biodiversity. However, unplanned development projects, land grabbing, and infrastructure expansion have led to the degradation of these critical ecosystems. The conversion of wetlands into agricultural land or urban settlements disrupts natural water retention systems, increasing the risk of flooding and reducing groundwater recharge capacity. This issue is particularly concerning in flood-prone regions, where the loss of wetlands has resulted in more severe and prolonged flooding events in recent years (Dewan & Yamaguchi, 2009).

Land tenure and governance issues further complicate the land use scenario in Bangladesh. Weak land administration, corruption, and legal disputes often lead to inefficient land management and conflicts over ownership. Many farmers and indigenous communities face displacement due to large-scale industrial and infrastructural projects without adequate compensation or rehabilitation. The absence of a comprehensive and sustainable land use policy has resulted in haphazard development, where land allocation does not always align with environmental conservation and agricultural sustainability (Mohmmad Fahim Afsan Chowdhury, 2024).

To address these pressing land use challenges, Bangladesh needs to implement a well-structured and sustainable land management policy that prioritizes both environmental conservation and food security. Proper zoning regulations, strict enforcement of land use laws, and the promotion of sustainable agricultural practices are crucial in mitigating land degradation and ensuring efficient use of available resources. Additionally, investment in agroecological farming, reforestation programs, and wetland restoration initiatives can help restore degraded land and enhance climate resilience. Collaborative efforts between the government, civil society, and local communities are essential in developing an inclusive and environmentally sustainable land use framework for the future of Bangladesh.

5. Social Conflict

Land use issues in Bangladesh have long been a source of social conflict, deeply rooted in historical land tenure systems, rapid urbanization, industrial expansion, and environmental degradation. The country, with its limited land resources and a high population density, faces immense challenges in balancing agricultural, residential, and commercial land use. Disputes over land ownership, government acquisition of land for development projects, and environmental consequences of unregulated land transformation often lead to tension among different societal groups.

Historically, land ownership in Bangladesh has been shaped by colonial-era policies that left a legacy of unequal land distribution. The zamindari system under British rule created a class of landlords who controlled vast tracts of land while the majority of peasants remained landless. Even after the abolition of zamindari in 1950 through the East Bengal State Acquisition and Tenancy Act, land ownership remained concentrated in the hands of a few. This unequal distribution has continued to fuel conflicts, as landless and marginalized farmers struggle to gain access to arable land for their livelihood (Das et al., 2012).

Urbanization has further intensified land-related conflicts, particularly in major cities like Dhaka and Chattogram, where rapid population growth has led to encroachments, forced evictions, and disputes between informal settlers and government authorities. The high demand for housing has given rise to real estate speculation, leading to an increase in land prices and the displacement of low-income communities. Often, these evictions occur without proper compensation or rehabilitation, exacerbating social inequalities and creating unrest among affected populations (Jahan et al., 2023).

Industrialization and infrastructural projects have also contributed to land conflicts, particularly when the government acquires land under the guise of ‘public interest’ without adequately compensating or consulting affected communities. Projects such as the construction of power plants, highways, and special economic zones frequently lead to resistance from local populations who depend on the land for their livelihood. For example, protests erupted in Banshkhali, Chattogram, when a coal power plant project led to the displacement of thousands of people without fair compensation, resulting in violent clashes between villagers and security forces (Joyee, 2021). These incidents highlight the growing tension between development priorities and the rights of local communities.

Agricultural land conversion to commercial and industrial purposes is another major concern. As Bangladesh strives for economic growth, fertile farmlands are increasingly being converted into factories, shopping complexes, and housing projects. This not only threatens food security but also affects the livelihoods of millions of farmers. Studies indicate that agricultural land in Bangladesh is shrinking at an alarming rate of about 1% per year due to unplanned urban expansion and industrialization (D. Kumar & Sanyal, 2024b). Farmers, particularly those with small landholdings, are often coerced into selling their lands at undervalued prices, leading to economic displacement and deepening rural poverty.

Environmental degradation resulting from land use conflicts further aggravates social tensions. Deforestation, wetland encroachments, and riverbank erosion caused by unregulated land acquisition disrupt ecosystems and displace communities, particularly in ecologically sensitive areas like the Sundarbans and haor regions. The expansion of shrimp farming in coastal areas, for instance, has led to significant land disputes, as traditional rice farmers and fishermen find their lands salinized and their means of subsistence destroyed. In many cases, influential individuals or companies take control of lands through illegal means, pushing marginalized communities into further vulnerability (Afroz & Alam, 2013).

Government policies and legal frameworks regarding land use remain inadequate in addressing these conflicts. The National Land Use Policy (2001) and the Land Acquisition Act (2017) aim to regulate land allocation and acquisition processes, but their implementation is often marred by corruption, bureaucratic inefficiencies, and lack of transparency. Land records management is outdated, leading to fraudulent claims and lengthy legal battles over land ownership. According to Transparency International Bangladesh (2020), land disputes account for nearly 80% of all legal cases in the country, highlighting the scale of the problem.

6. Legal Confilict

Land use conflicts in Bangladesh are deeply rooted in the nation’s dense population, limited land resources, and complex administrative framework. The country’s rapid population growth has intensified competition for land, leading to numerous disputes and legal challenges. Approximately 80% of court cases in rural areas are related to land conflicts, underscoring the severity of the issue (Md. Ayub Ali, 2020).

One of the primary factors contributing to these conflicts is the inefficiency and corruption within the land administration system. The current system is characterized by procedural difficulties, mismanagement, and a lack of accessibility for the general populace. This environment fosters disputes over land ownership and usage rights, often resulting in prolonged legal battles (S. Islam et al., 2015).

Administrative complexities further exacerbate the situation. A significant issue is the lack of coordination among various governmental agencies responsible for land management. For instance, the Sub-Registrar’s office registers land after checking records from the settlement office and the mutation records from the Assistant Commissioner (Land). However, due to poor inter-agency communication, records are seldom updated promptly, leading to discrepancies and disputes (Raihan et al., 2024).

Corruption within the land administration is another critical concern. A survey conducted by Transparency International Bangladesh revealed that 59% of households seeking services from land administration offices experienced corruption. This corruption often manifests as bribery, with citizens compelled to pay to access basic services or expedite processes. Such practices not only erode public trust but also perpetuate the cycle of disputes and legal conflicts (Raihan et al., 2024).

The congestion of legal disputes is a direct consequence of these administrative and systemic issues. Land-related cases constitute a significant portion of the total legal disputes in Bangladesh, resulting in a backlog that hampers the judicial system’s efficiency. The Land Survey Tribunal, tasked with resolving such disputes, often lacks the necessary manpower and resources, further delaying resolutions (Raihan et al., 2024).

Moreover, the absence of a centralized, digitized land record system complicates matters. The reliance on manual records increases the risk of errors, fraud, and multiple claims on the same parcel of land. This lack of reliable documentation is a significant barrier to resolving disputes and ensuring transparent land transactions (S. Islam et al., 2015).

To address these challenges, comprehensive reforms are necessary. Implementing a digitized land record system could enhance transparency, reduce corruption, and streamline processes. Additionally, improving inter-agency coordination and increasing public awareness about land rights and procedures are crucial steps toward mitigating conflicts. Legal reforms aimed at expediting dispute resolution and ensuring fair adjudication are also imperative.

7. Owership Inequality

Land ownership inequality in Bangladesh is a deeply entrenched issue, shaped by historical legacies, socio-economic structures, and cultural norms. The concentration of land among a small segment of the population has led to significant disparities, with profound implications for economic development and social equity. Historically, the Zamindari system, established during the colonial era, centralized land control among elites, a pattern that has persisted despite various land reform efforts. In rural Bangladesh, a mere 1% of landowners possess more than 7.5 acres, while 89% own less than 2.5 acres, and 39% hold less than 0.5 acres. This skewed distribution underscores the limited access to land for the majority, exacerbating poverty and restricting economic opportunities (S. Ahmed & Eklund, 2024).

The fragmentation of landholdings further complicates the agrarian landscape. Small and fragmented plots hinder efficient agricultural practices, reducing productivity and income for smallholder farmers. The inheritance laws contribute to this fragmentation, as land is divided among heirs, leading to progressively smaller parcels over generations. This process not only diminishes the economic viability of farming but also increases disputes over land ownership, fueling legal conflicts and social tensions.

Gender disparities in land ownership are particularly pronounced. Societal norms and legal frameworks have historically marginalized women in terms of property rights. Studies indicate that only about 10% of women have sole or joint ownership of agricultural land, compared to 70% of men. This disparity limits women’s economic empowerment and their ability to contribute effectively to household and national economies. The lack of land ownership restricts women’s access to credit and other resources, perpetuating cycles of poverty and dependence (Sultana et al., 2024).

Indigenous communities in regions like the Chittagong Hill Tracts face additional challenges. Customary land rights of these communities are often overlooked or violated, leading to displacement and loss of livelihoods. The influx of non-indigenous settlers and inadequate recognition of indigenous land claims have intensified these issues, resulting in socio-economic marginalization and cultural erosion (Uddin, 2019).

Urbanization and industrialization have introduced new dimensions to land ownership inequality. The expansion of urban areas and the demand for land for industrial purposes have led to the acquisition of agricultural land, often without fair compensation. This trend displaces rural populations, pushing them into urban slums or forcing them to seek livelihoods in precarious conditions. The process of land acquisition is frequently marred by corruption and lack of transparency, further disadvantaging the poor and vulnerable (Raihan et al., 2024).

Efforts to address land ownership inequality have been hindered by administrative inefficiencies and corruption within the land management system. The lack of coordination among various governmental agencies, outdated record-keeping practices, and the prevalence of corrupt practices have perpetuated land disputes and hindered equitable distribution. The existence of ‘khas’ land (state-owned land) that could be redistributed to the landless is often misappropriated by powerful elites, depriving intended beneficiaries of access (Raihan et al., 2024).  

Addressing land ownership inequality in Bangladesh requires comprehensive reforms that encompass legal, administrative, and socio-cultural dimensions. Legal reforms should aim to harmonize inheritance laws with principles of gender equality, ensuring women’s rights to property are recognized and enforced. Administrative reforms must focus on modernizing land records, enhancing transparency, and curbing corruption within land management institutions. Additionally, policies should prioritize the redistribution of ‘khas’ land to landless populations, with mechanisms to prevent elite capture. Public awareness campaigns and community engagement are crucial to shift societal norms that hinder equitable land ownership, particularly concerning women’s rights. Empowering local communities to participate in land governance can enhance accountability and ensure that policies reflect the needs and rights of marginalized groups. Ultimately, achieving equitable land ownership is fundamental to promoting inclusive economic development, reducing poverty, and fostering social justice in Bangladesh (Sarker et al., 2025).

8. Climate Change

Bangladesh, with its low-lying topography and dense population, stands as one of the nations most vulnerable to the multifaceted impacts of climate change. Among these, alterations in land use and land cover (LULC) have emerged as significant concerns, driven by both anthropogenic activities and climatic variations. A comprehensive study by (Xu et al., 2020) delves into the dynamics and drivers of LULC changes in Bangladesh, highlighting that rapid urbanization, agricultural expansion, and infrastructural developments have led to substantial transformations in land cover over recent decades. These changes not only exacerbate environmental degradation but also diminish the resilience of ecosystems to climate-induced stresses. The study emphasizes the necessity for integrated land management strategies that consider both developmental needs and environmental sustainability to mitigate the adverse effects of climate change on land resources (M. S. Islam et al., 2023).

In the urban context, Dhaka, the capital city, exemplifies the challenges posed by unplanned land and housing developments in flood-prone zones. Research by Alam and Mullick (2014) examines the repercussions of such developments, revealing that extensive land filling in flood-flow zones and water bodies has intensified urban flooding incidents. The study further projects that climate change will likely amplify these challenges, with increased rainfall leading to more severe flooding events. This underscores the critical need for urban planning policies that integrate climate resilience to safeguard both infrastructure and inhabitants (Jahangir Alam & Akter Mullick, 2014).

Coastal regions of Bangladesh are particularly susceptible to erosion, a phenomenon that has profound implications for LULC (M. S. Islam et al., 2023) conducted an assessment focusing on the Lower Meghna estuary, identifying significant land losses, predominantly agricultural lands, due to coastal erosion. The study predicts continued erosion, which threatens livelihoods and food security in these areas. The findings call for proactive coastal management strategies, including the implementation of erosion control measures and sustainable land use practices, to mitigate the adverse impacts on coastal communities (M. S. Islam et al., 2023).

The agricultural sector, a cornerstone of Bangladesh’s economy, is not immune to the effects of climate change. (M. S. Hossain et al., 2019) analyzed the economic impacts of climate variability on crop farming, revealing that fluctuations in temperature and rainfall patterns have led to decreased crop yields and financial losses for farmers. The study emphasizes the importance of developing climate-resilient agricultural practices and policies to ensure food security and sustain the livelihoods of millions dependent on farming.

Furthermore, the conversion of natural landscapes to urban areas has led to a decline in ecosystem services, which are vital for environmental health and human well-being. A study focusing on Dhaka and Gazipur districts by (Sorker et al., 2023) highlights the significant loss of tree vegetation and water bodies due to urban expansion. This loss has resulted in reduced air quality, increased urban heat island effects, and diminished water resources. The research advocates for the incorporation of ecosystem service valuation in land use planning to promote sustainable urban development and enhance the quality of life for urban residents.